Globalization
Do you agree that the phenomena of globalization has led to greater openness and tolerance for divergent cultural experiences?
Choose a particular consumption context (or combinations thereof) that you believe servesas an example of how global forces influence (or not) the ‘order of human life.’ You should highlight any global forces that you think are (or were) particularly active in shaping the consumption activity you will discuss.
For your essay, you should draw upon and consider the thesis of cultural homogenisation, cosmopolitanism and the global–local dialectics to discuss the socio-cultural consequences of globalisation.
Suggested contexts include (but not limited to):
• Sports • Media • Film • Fashion
• Supermarket • Music • Tourism • Food
Guidance question
To what extent do global forces alter local culture and everyday life?
What is the role of cultural intermediaries and/or global media in all of this?
What global forces are contributing?
What about cultural hybridity?
Collective / social movements?
Key Theories and Suggestions (please note the below are provisional suggestions)
• Chris Shilling (1993): The Body as Project
• Featherstone (1982): The Body in Consumer Culture
• Michel Foucault: The Disciplined Body and The Technology of the Self
• Judith Butler (1993): Gender Trouble
• Judith Butler (1990): Bodies that Matters
• Adrienne Rich (1980): Compulsory Heteronormativity
• Susan Bordo (1993): The Unbearable Weight
• The Birmingham School of Subculture
• Maffesoli (1996): Tribal Identity
• Sarah Thornton (1995): Subcultural Capital
• Pierre Bourdieu (1984): The Body as Cultural Capital
• Clive Seale (2000): The Commoditization of the Body
• Merleau-Ponty (1945/2002): The Phenomenogical Body
• Iris Marion Young (1990): The Lived Body of Femininity
• Homi Bhaba: The Location of Culture
Solution
More than ever before, countries, regions, cities, neighborhoods are interlinked close to each other. This is an ongoing process which has seen significant developments, especially after the Second World War. The ends result is that clothes we wear, food we eat, music and information we get is intertwined with many people across the globe. This ongoing process is what is referred to as globalization. This interconnection has created a “global village” which makes the international and national boundaries more or less irrelevant. While this may sound like the best thing to happen to humanity, the process of globalization raises various questions. The most pressing of this is its effects on local cultures in the face of growing influence of foreign cultures. In this paper, we discuss the process of globalization while focusing on the drivers of globalization and the role of media in shaping culture. This is followed by an assessment of whether globalization has led to greater openness and tolerance to divergent socio-cultural experiences. This is coupled with the theories of cosmopolitanism, homogenization of culture and the global-local dialectics.
How Globalization has led to greater openness and tolerance
for divergent cultural experiences
Introduction
In its most basic form, cosmopolitanism refers to the psychological disposition of openness to other peoples’ culture and willingness to enter into dialogue with them. This is followed by one’s openness to transform their perspective and sense of self. (Ulrich 2002) Cosmopolitanism comes about when ordinary people change their everyday practices due to foreign cultural influence most notably the use of foreign objects and idioms.
While focusing on globalization, one needs to understand that globalization is not a uni-directional or omnipotent force which follows a defined path. This is supported by the fact that there is no such thing as a global culture and focus on such would end up in futility. It would make more sense and be fruitful if one focused on defined aspects of life which clearly show the process of globalization. These aspects held to drive globalization and include; the spread of Information Technology (IT), the global integration of financial markets, advancements in transport and communication, increased flow of capital and goods, and tourism and travel at international and national levels. Immigrants (both legal and illegal) have carried their culture to their new countries where they contribute significantly to the workforce. In Malaysia, for instance, there are more than 2 million workers from the foreign country, yet the entire population is 27 million. (Embong 2011) Globalization has also been driven by time-space compression, a massive human-kind interdependence and intense cultural penetration in foreign countries. In this paper, food and entertainment are the aspects of life used to show the process of globalization as follows:
Food
Arguably, food is the largest and oldest carrier of culture across the globe. In the early phases of trade and colonization, food served as a driving force for globalization. For instance, Christopher Columbus introduced the red pepper to the Spanish court in 1493. (Watson 2016) in the next few generations it had spread quickly to Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. It transformed the way cuisines and farming were done in these new parts. Korean cuisine would not taste the same without red pepper paste neither would Szechuan food which is laced with fiery hot sauce. These are however recent inventions dating to around the 17th century. Agricultural revolutions in Arica and Asia can be attributed to the spread of global foods such as sweet potatoes, peanuts, maize, and cassava. The sweet potato was later introduced to South China and by the mid-1600’s had become the main crop which led to a rapid population growth in what is now referred to as Cantonese culture. It replaced white rice which had single-handedly sustained many generations of farmers in South China. Experiences such as the above have led to particular foods being attached to specific cultures. Presently, the same Cantonese people consider the sweet potato as a reminder of the past hard times (poverty food). This is in contrast to Taiwanese middle-class members who proudly associate their identity to the sweet potato. They have revived old recipes which they use to celebrate their culture distinction from the mainlanders whose cultural food is rice.
The effects of globalization have also had a significant change in the daily diet of many nations. Many countries are now focused on diets rich in dairy products, processed sugars, and meat. This cannot be seen as a useful trend and has been blamed for the increased risk of diabetes and obesity which are considered as a global threat according to the World Health Organization. This homogenization appears unstoppable to many observers. This has led many environmental activists, vegetarians, and organic food proponents to organize actions that will reverse this trend to more traditional foods. The problem with these measures is that they only focus on the educated elites in most developed nations.
When one strolls into any Starbucks, you find yourself as a part of a cultural revolution which is on a level never experienced before. In less than 50 years, this chain of coffee makers has grown to almost 20,000 shops spread across 60 countries. (Pagel 2014) The same coffee that is made in Seattle where the coffee chain began is served across all its branches. This means that regardless of where you are, Bangkok to New York, the cappuccino you take every morning is the same. This is the same with global brands including Coca-Cola and McDonalds, which have for the most part been blamed for these changes. McDonalds has turned out to be a symbol of globalism due to its ability to adjust their menus to be in line with local needs. A typical example of this adjustment is in India where McDonalds does not sell beef products due to the local culture.
These fast foods have also been accepted in countries where they were previously disdained. Haute cuisines are generally regarded as the core food in France. Nevertheless, Mcdonalds has been able to gain considerable acceptance as evidenced by the fact that there were more than 850 outlets in France on the turn of the 21st century. (Pagel 2014) It is thus not surprising that there have been social protests targeting McDonalds for its cultural imperialism. This shows the fast food culture has been accepted globally and does not affect economic behavior. Moreover, the culture of fast foods indicates that it affects local culture and influences public conduct. Take a case of Japan where using your hands to eat was seen as gross misconduct and lack of etiquette. With the popularization of hamburgers by McDonalds, it is now acceptable to eat without spoons or chopsticks even in public.
Finally, fast foods have influenced children significantly. This can be attributed to the many advertisements which appeal to children especially with the American-style birthday parties which have spread globally. The chance for one to choose their food may not be available at home, but fast food joints have changed this. Children who visit fast food joints often feel a sense of empowerment in experiencing what children in different parts of the world experience. (Watson 2016)
Entertainment
It is without a doubt that the world has become more interconnected over the past years. Entertainment has had a significant contribution to globalization. Movies and music are the biggest drivers of this globalization. One consideration for this phenomenon can be attributed to the presence of universal themes. Despite being based on different cultural backgrounds, there are similar topics such as good versus evil and love for family. This can be said of American, Chinese, Japanese and movies from all other countries. These shared themes have given insight into different cultures based on where they are produced. The reason they have generally been accepted globally is the underlying universal themes regardless of where one is watching the movie. These movies have helped bring people together. For instance, China is currently the biggest consumer of box office movies which and this follows the removal of restrictions on the number of foreign films allowed for screening in the country. (Pennisi 2013) Similarly, foreign films are now acceptable in the American cinema.
Music has also had a huge impact on diffusing local cultures globally. One common phrase that encompasses this is “Music is the universal language of mankind”. This diffusion of culture means that music has an underlying common trait regardless of one’s location. Different cultures have unique tastes in music but there is also a shared underlying appreciation for music. This has led to people from different cultures partaking in music festivals that bring together music fans. E,g T in the Park which is a UK music festival which encompasses artists and people from different countries.
It cannot go without mentioning that sports continue to draw huge following the world over. The Olympic Games, World Cup men’s football, and Basketball Championships are just a few of these examples. The media has played quite a significant role in this by bringing these sports events to people who had never seen them before. It has also led to various personalities becoming global icons with huge followings. Take the example of Michael Jordan, who became a global icon for his stunning basketball abilities which saw him lead the Chicago Bulls to six championships. (Pennisi 2013)
The role of media
The best way to describe media is that media is omnipresent and all pervasive. Media in this context refers to a whole range of genre – including local, national and international media. Media is available in all formats such as print, electronic and the current wave of new media – social media. To put it literally, media is everywhere, it affects everybody and plays a significant part of everyday modern life. That is to say peoples’ beliefs, attitudes and opinions on economics, religion, health, education, politics, and culture are to a large extent shaped by media. Currently, with the introduction of cable TV and the Internet, we have access to basically anything every single minute of every single day. This is why the media has often been described as the fourth estate which serves to shape peoples’ opinions by linking the state with society. (Embong 2011)
Media has underlying power in the homogenization of culture. One false belief by society is that technology is neutral. This homogenization of culture has led society to accept it passively with no consideration of its impact on local culture. Media has a way of changing peoples’ thinking, acting and reacting depending on what content media transmits. This is made more significant by the way messages are sent and the type of media transmitting the message. This has led many to believe that the acceptance of different culture will result in global peace and understanding. (Firouzeh 2004)
Besides, media can alter local cultures without resistance. This is something that even colonization was unable to achieve. Cultural homogenization has led to past cultures being seen as backward since it also focuses on all audiences rather than the elites. Political and social ideas are projected to the people using non-imperial subjects. This has allowed international media to overpower local media. This kind of cultural homogenization has seen the traditional bonds of family and community destroyed while new relationships are created with markets based on newly adopted aspirations. (Firouzeh 2004)
Though not fully understood, the impact of media on the cultural diversity of communities is mostly seen in the youth. The main characteristic of this type of media is that it is consumed by the young people. Homogenization of culture is seen when pop stars are the moral authorities for this young generation. The American media portrays the lifestyles of luxury and sexuality. This portrayal has hindered the acceptance of various cultures in different nations. Islam countries such as Iran have prohibited the borrowing of American culture. This resistance has become useless in the youth since they still access this although undercover. The young people have borrowed significantly from what they see on media including dressing in jeans and sunglasses like their idols. This identification to media personalities leads to a false sense of reality and escapism. The lifestyles portrayed by these characters are beauty, riches, glamor and power. Contrasting this with their culture of getting dirty and tired of earning small amounts of money is shunned by these youth. This feeling leads the young people to have sense of inferiority and rejection of one’s culture. (Pennisi 2013)
As can be seen, media can play a significant role in promoting and preserving the local culture and identity of communities, similar to how it supports the homogenization trends of globalization. Something to note, however, is that the media industry bows to the financial pressures and thus positive news of the locals can be overlooked since they lack the same “selling power” of international and national events. This is why the current generation of internet news is the last hope for communities to show their interests and aspirations.
Cultural hybridity
Culture can be seen as a combination of different cultures which are layered one upon another. These cultures have been blended and influence each other to come up with a fluid and unbound culture. This notion has been popularized post- colonial era. Hybridity at this time was seen as the culture emerging from the interactions of the colonized and their colonizers. Globalization has contributed to hybridity which is visible in every aspect of society from the adoption of Caribbean rhythms in pop music to the trendy fashions. (Yazdiha 2010) One typical example of cultural hybridity is racial hybridity. Racial hybrids were children born to the union of the colonized and the colonizer. These combinations were seen as impure and their place became ambiguous since they could not be placed in either the colonized and colonizers. However, with the onset of cultural interactions through immigration these hybrids have been accepted, and the prior representation of power based on color no longer hold. This can be seen as a way in which cultural hybridity contributes to acceptance and tolerance of diverse cultures.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is quite clear that globalization has contributed significantly to acceptance and tolerance of divergent cultural experiences. Those who are opposed to the idea of cosmopolitanism and globalization point out to the net loss of local culture. They believe that globalization leads to the destruction of personal identity. (Palmer 2003) However, my opinion on this issue remains that globalization has contributed to acceptance and tolerance of divergent cultural. The spread of media is expected to continue, and thus, the world will eventually become more or less a ‘village’. Those who are opposed to this idea will become irrelevant as times change. This is not to say that we need to accept all global trends blindly. This is where individual discipline, morals and principles will help shape future generations cultural perspectives. Cultural homogenization seems unstoppable and will continue to accelerate globally as the internet, travel, and social networking continues to grow. Even if it means loss of local culture, it will increase cooperation and acceptance of diverse cultures which will foster togetherness due to the sense of shared culture.
References
Embong, AR 2011, ‘THE QUESTION OF CULTURE, IDENTITY AND GLOBALISATION: AN UNENDING DEBATE’, Kajian Malaysia, vol 29, pp. 11-22.
Firouzeh, N 2004, ‘Globalisation and Homogenisation of Culture: The Role of Mass Medias in Developing Countries’, Human Ecology Special Issue, vol 12, pp. 235-239.
Pagel, M 2014, Does globalization mean we will become one culture?, viewed 16 May 2016, <http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20120522-one-world-order>.
Palmer, TG 2003, ‘Globalization, Cosmopolitanism, and Personal Identity’, Etica & Politica / Ethics & Politics, vol 2.
Pennisi, E 2013, The Entertainment Industry’s Contribution to Globalization, viewed 16 May 2016, <http://globaledge.msu.edu/blog/post/1476/the-entertainment-industry’s-contribution-to-globalization>.
Ulrich, B 2002, ‘The Cosmopolitan Society and Its Enemies”, Theory, Culture and Society’, vol 19, pp. 17-44.
Watson, JL 2016, Cultural globalization – Anthropology, viewed 16 May 2016, <http://www.britannica.com/science/cultural-globalization>.
Yazdiha, H 2010, ‘Conceptualizing Hybridity: Deconstructing Boundaries through the Hybrid’, Formations, vol 1, no. 1.