THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
Instructions:
For this assignment you should write 8-10 pages (text length) on a subject of your choice from the period we are discussing. This needs to be an event, not a biography. You must have a min of 5 academically credible sources. Be sure to create a strong thesis statement and include citations, coversheet and a bibliography.
Guidelines: As a formal written assignment this paper will need to be proofread, spell checked, contain a cover sheet, a bibliography and citations in Chicago/Turabian style footnotes or endnotes throughout your paper for all information that you use from your sources.
Solution
THE ROMAN REPUBLIC
Thesis statement
While the Roman Republic came into being through military conquest, its destruction resulted from internal wrangles mostly as a result of the broadening gap between the rich and the poor. The lessons from the Republic, however, form the foundations of modern democracy.
Introduction
The late 6th century BCE saw the overthrowing of the Roman monarchy (led by the last king Tarquin the Proud in 509BCE) paving way for the creation of the republican government that envisaged a representation of the wishes of the Roman citizens. The city would later grow to become a powerful nation, conquering all its neighboring countries and beyond. Its government and institutions would endure for at least five centuries until a time when wretched from incessant civil wars, it would transform to participate that was ruled by emperors.
Prior to the rise of the republic, very little is documented. Roman historian Livy (59 BCE – 17 CE) however managed to write quite some history about Ancient Rome[1]. However, much of the history was based on myth, legend and oral accounts with some accounts claiming that the transformation from monarchy to republic was not a day’s event, but rather an extended period of time, even centuries.
After the exit of Tarquin and his kingdom, Rome suffered both internal and external conflict, spending most of the 5thcenturystruggling. Between the period of 510 BCE and 275 BCE, despite the internal challenges, the city continued to grow becoming the most powerful nation in the entire region of the Italian peninsula. Rome won the battle of Regallus (496 BCE) against the Latins and the Pyrrhic Wars (280 – 275 BCE) emerging as a western superpower at the time. The apparent military power also led to the growth of a social and political structure in the republic, albeit gradually. From its simple background, the city created a new government that later dominated the area from the North Africa (Egypt), Greece and Syria, Hispania, Germany and the North Sea. These areas continued to remain under the Romans throughout the republic leadership and well into the Roman Empire.
Government of the Republic
The expansion of the Republic leading to the conquest of the above regions took time. Before the republic became a dominant military force, it had to have a stable government, avoiding the possibility of a single individual becoming too powerful to seize control. They opted to create a system that exhibited a true balance of power. Immediately after the fall of the monarchies and the creation of the republic, leadership fell in the hands of great families, commonly known as patricians. These were the only families that were allowed to hold religious or political offices, leaving the remaining citizens with no authority although some of them were still as rich as the patricians. The arrangement, therefore, could not last to the dismay of the Patricians.
Tensions between the patricians and the other citizens grew over the years mostly because the poor lot provided most of the military power. They questioned the rationale of fighting in wars if all the gains of such wars only went to the wealthy. In 494 BCE, the poor, also known as the Plebians decided to go on strike, gathering outside the city and refusing to give way until they got representation. This was famously known as ‘conflict of the orders’. The plebs were finally rewarded with their own assembly, or what was known as the Council of the Plebs’
While the Rome Republic could never be said to be a true democracy, it provided its citizens with the opportunity to decide how they wanted their city to be run or ruled. Through their decision to go on strike, the Plebian’s had the rare chance to enter into a system where power lay in various assemblies and a number of magistrates. The executive power in the government was in the hands of two councils that were elected by a select committee and ruled for only a year. The council was tasked with the responsibility of proposing laws, Senate duties and army command.
Magistrates & Officials
The republics power structure also included several magistrates who wielded judicial power with civic and provincial jurisdiction. Others were the Quaestor who was concerned with matters financial and the Aedile who was in charge of urban infrastructure maintenance such as roads, food supplies, water, festivals and annual sports events. Last on the power spectrum was the censor, a highly coveted position that was held for only 18 months. This was a taker of census and statistics involved in the review of citizens and their property ownerships. The final position was held by a unique person, the dictator. This is an individual who was accorded complete authority and was only made present during a period of emergency and was expected to serve for only six months. The most famous occupant of this position is Julius Caesar, who was declared a dictator for life
Assemblies
Besides magistrates, there also existed assemblies. These represented the voice of the male population, therefore, allowing for the hearing of the opinions of some of the citizens of the country. The most prominent of the assemblies was the Roman senate that represented a remnant of the older monarchy. Although senators were generally unpaid for their work, senators were expected to serve for their entire lifetime unless they were removed for malpractices. While the senate had no legislative powers, it served as an advisor to the governing council and later to the emperor and was therefore deemed to be very powerful. They were mandated to propose laws, declare war, administration of civic matters, administer finances and oversee foreign policy. The enactment of laws, however, was a preserve of a number of popular assemblies. Besides these major players in the legislation, a number of smaller tribal assemblies existed.
As noted above, the conflict of orders was characterized by the conflict between the patricians and the Plebians for control of political power which led to the establishment of the conciliumplebis[2]. Besides passing laws that favored members of the Plebians, members also elected a number of tribunes to represent them in the senate. Despite being represented in the Council of Plebs, there was insufficient representation leading to the establishment of the Twelve Tables to appease the Plebian concerns. The Twelve Tables was involved mainly in the tackling of domestic problems emphasizing mainly on private property and family life. Besides being granted immunity from imprisonment because of debt, Plebians were also allowed to appeal a decision of a magistrate. They were even allowed to intermarry with the patricians and even become members of the consuls besides other rights.
Rome’s Growth
The likeness of democracy as was the case in The Republic allowed Rome to grow even further beyond its traditional boundaries. Their victory in the war against the Carthage was the first step towards the republics growth beyond the Italian Peninsula. The destruction of the Carthage and the defeat of the Greeks in the four wars in Macedonia established the Republic as a pivotal Mediterranean powerhouse[3]. The conquest of the Greeks brought to the fore the rich Greek culture to Rome, its art, literature, and philosophy. These, however, were not enough to hold together a highly polarized Republic. The widening gap between the rich and the poor, the haves and the have not’s created a power struggle that eventually made it difficult for the Republic to flourish.
Besides military conquests, Romans had strong beliefs in the importance of family and religious values. They also believed in their citizenship and true civilization. The constant state of war not only made the republic wealthy but also played a great role towards molding the Roman society. The influence of Greek philosophy and culture also affected the Roman religion and culture, leading to the transformation of the Roman Traditional gods. It shifted their religious commitment from individual gods to a strict adherence to rigid rituals and also led to the construction of Temples in honor of these gods.
During the time, there was an upsurge of the population into the city of Rome from all over the country site. These are people that had come from far and wide, in search of better lives, employment, and livelihoods. They however encountered serious challenges in the search for elusive jobs. This led them to reside mostly in poor neighborhoods that were filthy and full of crime. There were no basic services such as water and natural light or even toilets. This became a breeding zone for diseases that led to the death of many of the occupants, adding to the challenges that faced an already disgruntled population.
Although this struggle between the rich and the poor continued until the collapse of the Republic, there were some people in power that made attempts to find solutions to the problems faced by the citizens. In the 2nd century BCE, two tribunes, who were also brother attempted but failed to make their intended changes. They had proposed to give land to both the unemployed as well as small farmers so that they can make their livelihood through farming. The senate members, most of whom were large land owners and farmers quickly rejected this proposal. Although a law was finally passed allowing for the proposal to be implemented, it was not enforced leading to clashes that saw the death of at least 300 people, among them Tiberius Gracchus who was had originated with the idea.
A proposal by Tiberius’ brother, Gaius to give citizenship to all Roman allies was also vehemently opposed by the leadership at the time. In the ensuing riots, at least 3000 of his supporters were killed, leading him to commit suicide. The failure of the two brothers to create any meaningful reforms in Rome would be a strong indicator that Rome was on the brink of collapse. Another Roman strongman rose and initiated a series of reforms, marching to Rome and seizing power from Gaius Marius. He subsequently defeated the neighboring kings, destroyed the senate before enacting several reforms and the courts[4]. This signaled the fall of the Republic as it was known.
Fall of the Republic
As discussed above, unlike many kingdoms of the time, the Roman Republic did not collapse due to external threats or war but rather fell to its internal squabbles. It was mainly as a result of the inability of the Republic to manage its own expanding empire by not making the necessary adjustments in readiness of the growing territory. Even earlier prophecies had indicated that the Republic would fall to its own internal challenges and not by foreign invasion. There were, however, clear warnings to its impending fall. The incessant demands the Roman allies for the award of citizenships had gone on for a long while, as a sign of unrest. For many years, the Roman allies had provided Roman with soldiers for war, although they were never recognized as Roman Citizens[5]. Just like was the case with the Plebian’s earlier, they wanted to enjoy the same rights that the Roman citizens did. The Senate in its wisdom had warned Rome that it would be dangerous to Rome. Despite these warnings, full citizenship was granted to all the people that resided in the Italian Peninsula. In the years that followed, Julius Caesar extended citizenship to citizens residing beyond Italy, to Gaul and Spain.
Around this time, the city of Rome faced serious threats to its survival, originating from conspiracies to have its government overthrown by some of the senators. There was also the threat of decline due to its moral decay and lawlessness[6]. These problems, coupled with incessant unrest drew the attention of three Roman leaders, Julius Caesar, Marcus Crassus and Pompey Gnaeus. They were all successful people in their own right, with Crassus gaining fame from defeating the Spartacus, Pompey gaining fame in Spain and the east while Caesar was hailed as a great commander. For almost a decade, the three rulers ruled Rome, controlling all military operations and council activities. Caesar was the first to leave the First Triumvirate, moving north to Germania and Gaul while Pompey became the governor of Spain albeit from Rome. Crassus, on the other hand, moved east, but unfortunately lost his life at the Battle of Carrhae.
Caesar became hugely successful and wished to return to politics while Pompus became jealous of Ceasar’s successful exploits. This created tension between the two rulers, eventually bringing them to battle in 48 BCE at Pharsalus. Caesar defeated Pompus who escaped to Egypt where he met his death[7]. Caesar returned to Rome as a hero and was declared a dictator for life.He was however assassinated in 44BCE, bringing an end to the Rome Republic as it was known. From the ashes of the Republic sprung the famous Roman Empire.
Bibliography
Wasson, Donald L. “Roman Republic.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.Last modified April 07, 2016.http://www.ancient.eu/Roman_Republic/.
Gallia A. ‘‘Remembering the Roman Republic: Culture, Politics and History under the Principate’’, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2012
Williams, Guy “The Historiography of the Late Roman Republic,” Saber and Scroll: Vol. 4: Iss. 2, Article 6. 2015 http://digitalcommons.apus.edu/saberandscroll/vol4/iss2/6
Adrian Goldsworthy, ‘‘The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars, 265-146 BC’’ London, UK: Phoenix, 2006, 12.
Erik Hildinger, ‘‘Swords Against the Senate: The Rise of the Roman Army and the Fall of the Republic’’ Cambridge: Da Cappo Press, 2002), ix-xi.
Erich S. Gruen, ‘‘The Last Generation of the Roman Republic’’ London, UK: University of California Press, 1974), 375.
Eilers, Claude. “A Roman East: Pompey’s
Settlement to the Death of Augustus.” Companion
to the Hellenistic World.Ed. Andrew Erskine. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003.
90-102
Millar F. ‘‘The
Political Character of the Classical Roman Republic’’ 200-151 B.C.’, JRS74, 1984(pg. 1-19)
[1] Donald, Wasson. “Roman Republic.” Ancient History Encyclopedia.Last modified April 07, 2016.http://www.ancient.eu/Roman_Republic/
[2] Gallia A. ‘‘Remembering the Roman Republic: Culture, Politics and History under the Principate’’, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2012
[3] Adrian Goldsworthy, ‘‘The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars, 265-146 BC’’ London, UK: Phoenix, 2006, 12.
[4] Hildinger, Erik ‘‘Swords Against the Senate: The Rise of the Roman Army and the Fall of the Republic’’ Cambridge: Da Cappo Press, 2002), ix-xi.
[5] Guy, Williams “The Historiography of the Late Roman Republic,” Saber and Scroll: Vol. 4: Iss. 2, Article 6. 2015 http://digitalcommons.apus.edu/saberandscroll/vol4/iss2/6
[6] Gruen, Erich ‘‘The Last Generation of the Roman Republic’’ London, UK: University of California Press, 1974), 375.
[7] Eilers, Claude. “A Roman East: Pompey’s Settlement to the Death of Augustus.” Companion to the Hellenistic World.Ed. Andrew Erskine. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003. 90-102